Hamlet and His Problems Essay

Eliot offers, as we have seen, what has come to be called an ‘impersonal theory of poetic creation. ’ Eliot would not have denied either that poets have feelings or that poetry inspires certain feelings in the reader. He offers, rather, an account, centered around his notion of the objective correlative, of how such feelings enter the poem in the first place that differs significantly from the expressive model of poetry promulgated by the Romantics. In â€Å"Tradition and the Individual Talent,† you might recall, using a chemical analogy, Eliot compares the poet’s mind to a catalyst and the emotions and feelings (he draws a distinction between these two that is unclear) universally inspired by particular objects and events to two chemicals which react with each other only in the presence of the catalyst. The product of the ‘chemical’ reaction is a poem which, when properly executed, then in turn inspires the same emotions and feelings in its audience. In short, the poet does not inject his personal emotions into the poem, that is, the best poetry does not ‘express’ the personality (thoughts and feelings) of the poet concerned. In â€Å"Hamlet and Its Problems,† Eliot gives further insight into exactly how emotions are included in poems without the poet’s own feelings becoming personally involved. According to Eliot, the best poets seek to verbally describe suitable objects which, when included in the poem, are responsible for generating a particular kind of emotion that, in turn, strikes the appropriate chord in the reader. The ‘object’ captured in words in this way serves, as Eliot puts it, as the ‘correlative’ of a particular kind of emotion. Eliot puts it this way: the only way of expressing emotion in the form of art is by finding an ‘objective correlative’; in other words, a set of objects, a situation, a chain of events which shall be the formula of that particular emotion; such that when the external facts, which must terminate in sensory experience, are given, the emotion is immediately evoked. 124-5) For example, the description of death inevitably involves the generation of sadness and related emotions in the audience as it would if it happened on real life. Given that Eliot is of the view that the best poetry is divorced from the personal feelings and involvement of the poet, the death described has little to do with the poet’s personal experiences of mortality. From this point of view, Eliot contends, the reason why Shakespeare’s play Hamlet is a failure is that the â€Å"essential emotion of the play is the feeling of a son towards a guilty mother† (124). However, the character Hamlet is â€Å"dominated by an emotion† (125) that is â€Å"in excess of the facts as they appear† (125). That is, the play Hamlet’s difficulty is that the character Hamlet’s â€Å"disgust is occasioned by his mother, but . . . is mother is not an adequate equivalent for it; his disgust envelops and exceeds her† (125). In short, the in fact not entirely unsympathetic figure of Gertrude in the play is not an adequate object for the emotions which she is meant to generate in her son. The play fails because Gertrude is a badly executed character who does not function as she is intended to by Shakespeare and thus fails as an objective correlative for emotions of disgust.

School Life: What I Learned

As I look back, there are multiple reason I am who I am today, but when I think about it changing to a public school my junior year really had a huge impact on my life and who I am today. It has made me independent and trust of myself, become more involved in school and learned how to balance my time. Also, switch schools, I have experienced a huge diversity of people. My first two years of high school, I attended St.Pius X, there I had gone to school ith all the same people I had known my whole life. Pius was a very small school and very easy to adapt to. After my sophomore year, I just knew something wasn’t right with me. I felt very sheltered and I felt like I wasn’t my own person, I felt myself being like everyone else. Knowing myself and what I wanted in life, I knew St. Pius was no longer the school for me. My Junior year, I switched to North Kansas City, knowing few people going in. Going through something like that, I had no friends and no one to trust myself.I had no fear going in. Being able to start completely over with no friends and no one to trust or go to I developed so much confidence in myself and knew I would adapt quickly. Still to this day, even with the close relationships I have made with people, I am still very independent. I make sure no matter what goes on in my life to take care of all of my responsibilities and this quality will come in handy in college with everything I will experience and will continue to stay successful. To help myself adapt to the change, I became as involved as I possibly could.I joined clubs, did volunteer work and also played three sports all while maintaining a job. Being this involved I was nervous I would become overwhelmed and thought it would be easy to loose my focus with academics but I knew that I couldn’t let that happen. My grades really improved and I was able to manage all of my activities and always get my school work done. This will definitely benefit me in college because I k now that I will be as involved as possible and that i will still maintain the motivation to get ll my work done and take care of every single of my responsibilities I develop in college. North Kansas City is not only a bigger school that I am used to, but also a very diverse school. We represent people from about thirty six different countries. I have developed close relationships with people from places I have never even heard of. At North Kansas City high school there are so many opportunities, every individual person seems like they have found comfort there. I know I have found many things to be involved in.When I get in college I know there will be people all over the world and for most it will be a huge culture shock. Being surrounded by people with different backgrounds and all walks of life and my experience with going to one of the most diverse schools in the country will help me understand people and where they are all coming from. As much as I miss my old friends and old l ife, in the end I am so happy with the change. The self trusting, time management skills and experience to a very diverse school is what is best for me in the future, not only in college but in my career after college as well.

CARL ROGERS PERSON-CENTRED APPROACH

CARL ROGERS PERSON-CENTRED APPROACH Introduction Carl Rogers (1902-1987) a psychologist developed the person-centred approach theory mainly in relation to the therapist and the client and initially named it the client-centred approach. Rogers later referred to this theory as person-centred rather than patient-centred in order not to reduce the individual’s autonomy and consequently lend the client to difficulties. The approach therefore is to turn individuals (clients) into subjects of their own therapy. In his theory it was noted that individuals are endowed with the power of self actualization and through their own perception of resources inherent in them, they can provide remedy for change in their difficult situations, provided a facilitating environment exists This view as expressed by Rogers implied that every person has a tendency to grow and attain a certain level of actualization. He observed that in order to allow the client (person) asses his/her own wisdom and self defeating behaviours and also enga ge in therapeutic movement with the therapist, there must be a conducive climate. Three conditions were identified for this relationship to thrive favourably: Genuineness (Congruence), Empathy and Unconditional Positive Regard. GENUINENESS (Congruence) In this relationship the therapist is expected to show a real sense of genuine attitude towards the client’s feelings and thoughts, be willing and ever present to assist them in whatever situation they may be. He should be transparent and discourage the attitude of being the superior in the situation. This attitude would in turn retain a high sense of confidence in the client towards realization of him/herself in therapy. Any deviation from this attitude renders the process unworkable. UNCONDITIONAL POSITIVE REGARD (Total Acceptance) According to Rogers, the therapist in this situation must show non-judgemental and total acceptance to the client’s feelings and his perceptive world as a whole to enhance his process of rec overy. This total acceptance of the client’s attitude and perception should be devoid of whatsoever differences that might exist between them either culturally or socially. However in doing so the therapist should ensure the safety and security of the client. EMPATHETIC UNDERSTANDING In his theory, showing empathy refers to the ability of the therapist to show positive sensitivity to the client’s world, his perception towards recovery and also communicate his feelings to the client. This will convey a special meaning to the client of his relationship with the therapist and consequently solidify their mutual relationship towards the expected therapeutic movement. Rogers continue to state that any deviation from these attitudes on the part of the therapist makes it difficult for the process to continue. This empathetic attitude is more exhibited by therapists who are more confident about their own identity and can cope with other person’s world without any fear. P ERSON-CENTREDNESS AS A CONCEPT Person-centeredness a concept in health care delivery has poor and conflicting definitions over the years and is considered one of the best ways of health care delivery in which patients are valued as individuals (Winfield et al. 1996). It has further been observed by

Week Six Question Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Week Six Question - Essay Example (Watkins, 2004) One of the key reasons as to why founding fathers of America refused to consider paper money as a legal tender was the unrestrained use and possession of this money thus causing damage to the society. Since paper money was not backed by the real physical assets therefore its issuance and circulation was considered as morally damaging for the society as a whole. Apart from this, the issuance of paper money by some States has created widespread inflationary pressures on the economy. The case of Rhodes Island is considered as an ideal case wherein Rhodes Island not only issued the currency but also passed legislation that if anyone refuses to accept this as a legal tender, he or she may be fined for $100. The uncontrolled use of paper money also became detrimental for the trade in Rhodes Island. This experiment created a widespread dissent among those responsible for development of a unanimously agreed constitution of the country. (Newcomer, 1986) It is important to note that the US Constitution only prohibits States from issuing paper money but it is relatively silent on the powers of the federal government to issue fiat money. It is however, critical to note that US has started to issue paper money much before even the constitution was adapted in the country. The necessary and proper clause in the constitution also gave powers to the federal government to actually pass any law which may be considered as necessary. (Feeley & Rubin, 2008). The constitutional convention also gave silent powers to the federal government to actually issue paper money but it suggested restraining from inserting an explicit clause in the constitution to allow the issuance of paper money in the country. The current system of issuing currency notes in the country therefore also points out to this constitutional issue as US Mint is responsible for issuance of coins in limited numbers where Fed has been

Digital Media Strategy and Implementation Essay

Digital Media Strategy and Implementation - Essay Example Intel presently manufactures a range of products including motherboard chipsets, integrated circuits, network interface controllers, embedded processors, graphic chips and a range of other communication devices. The management strategy of the organization is closely linked to its founders Robert Noyce and Gordon Moore and the leadership of Andrew Grove. Initially, the company was only known to people in the technology industry. However over the years, intensive advertising campaigns have made Intel a household name across the world mostly arising from its Pentium processor. Intel presently operates as a public company, a status it achieved in 1971 after launching an Initial Public Offering (IPO) (Gawer and Cusumano 44). Development At its formation, Intel was primarily concerned with the production of SRAM and DRAM memory chips which accounted for almost all the sales of the company until 1981. Even though the company invented the microprocessor chip early in 1971, the importance and popularity of this device had not been realized since the personal computer industry had not yet grown sufficiently. The success of the PC triggered a period of much organizational success for Intel as a result of the increased demand for the microprocessors. At this time, Intel grew rapidly as the dominant microprocessor supplier in the computer industry. However, this growth had its own share of challenges. At this time, several major organizations such as Microsoft were coming up in this industry, and this created a lot of struggle for control of the direction of the industry (Elliott 15). In the 1980s and 90s, Intel experienced periods of unprecedented growth given that it had become the primary supplier of microprocessors to IBM and other major computer manufacturers across the world. The Pentium brand became a household name, and this created a lot of brand loyalty for the organization. However, in the 2000s, the growth of the company began to slow down. At this time, there w as a reduced demand for high-end microprocessors. Intel’s competitors like AMD gained a lot of market share. In order to address the company’s reduced sales, the then- CEO Craig Barrett began a process of diversifying the product line of the company by engaging in the production of other technology devices. However, it proved difficult for the company to venture into such new fields since other players had already established strong grounds (Metz). Success factors On the basis of most success factors, Intel has indeed been successful. The company is presently ranked at position 49 among the fortune 500 companies and this indicates a good revenue position. In a world driven by innovation, the company has carried forward the spirit of the founders and continues to take the lead in innovation across the industry. The innovation was a result of the proper management structures that have existed in the organization since its formation. In this respect, Moore and Noyce place d much priority on the people as an important asset for the organization. Openness, responsibility and equality have become a driving factors and this greatly motivates the employees. Innovation at Intel is not therefore the prerogative of the R&D department as in other organizations. Rather, every employee has the capacity to ensure an improvement in their area operations. This has seen the company expand its product line from microprocessor to other products like network cards, memory drives and motherboard chipsets.

Houe of Usher study guide and costa leevl questions Assignment

Houe of Usher study guide and costa leevl questions - Assignment Example The description and the presentation of the narrator’s thoughts enables the readers to better understand the tone of the story from the beginning. The house is located in a remote location where it is alone, the stone walls are very plane, and the windows are not shuttered, there are rotting grass and tree trunks. Black floor, gothic archway hall, dark passages. The narrator was going to visit the Roderick Usher because he had received an invitation requesting him to come and visit. Roderick Usher had been diagnosed with a mental problem and required to see his old time friend, who is the narrator of the story. Mr. Usher thought that seeing the narrator would help him ease the condition of his ailment. The ghost of Lady Madeline appeared within inside the room of the narrator. Though such stories had been narrated to the narrator he did not believe in the occurrences but that day the narrator lacked sleep. This caused the narrator to start thinking deeply about what could have caused the lack of sleep. The inclusion of details of the night was meant to provide a vivid description of the elements which defined the darkness bestowing the night. This ensures the readers can comprehend the aspects of the darkness which was present during that night yet the narrator and Usher were not afraid of the darkness. As the narrator read the story to Usher, an echo of the sound of sir Lancelot was heard from a distance. The strange sounds which occurred while the narrator read the story was confirmed to be the voice of sir Lancelot, who was the subject of the story. When the living corpse of Lady Madeline came into the narrator’s room it was emancipated and had blood upon the white robe, which adorned the corpse. This provided evidence of the bitter struggle during her lifetime. The corpse fell heavily on upon usher and killed him. A gothic story combines elements of horror and romanticism

Claire's Stores Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Claire's Stores - Essay Example in 1973. Previously, it known as FT Industries after the acquisition of Fashion Tress, Inc. in 1961, and the new name was conceived in 1983, two years before getting enlisted with the New York Stock Exchange. The latest one, however, had been the biggest of all deals and eventually the most popular one with 60 stores scattered in different parts of Chicago. 1994 saw the industry moving out of homeland when it entered into a joint venture with Japan’s Jusco Co., Ltd., which resulted to the opening of the first branch of Claire’s Stores in Tokyo. Eventually, it spread out to 172 other locations by 2006.Though the company had been continuing with its overseas acquisitions since 1993, the next biggest one had been that in 1995 when it purchased Bow Bangles Holding Ltd., a Birmingham based chain of stores. It was followed by the acquisition of Bijoux One, a 53-chain store scattered across Switzerland, Austria and Germany in 1998, and Cleopatre Stores in France with chain of 42 stores. Schaeffer had strategized his moves so as to acquire almost all rival firms of the company. Although it had started out as a fashion accessories group of stores meant for young teenagers, it soon moved into the domain of selling accessories for older teenagers and young women post the acquisition of Afterthoughts in 1999; Afterthoughts had been a giant chain of 768 stores. However, the company had not always divulged into expansive strategies. The acquisition of a unisex garments chain for teenagers in 2002 as well as that of a trendy gift stores chain in 1998 both had proved disastrous for the company compelling Schaefer to eventually sell them away. Operational Information The features that Claire’s Stores Inc. is endowed with are common to almost every successful chain of shops. It had strategically planned its locations so as to stay in areas frequented most by its target customers, consisting of teenagers and young women. In order to keep its costs of operatio n low, the company has arranged distributors and suppliers in the nearest possible locations to their stores. Such a step not only helps to reduce the cost of operation but also arranges distributions within a short span of time. In addition, the company had been exploiting its negotiating powers with vendors to keep the profit margins high and also to compensate for the low footfall during seasonal fluctuations. This is one of the reasons which made the company popular and a common name among young teenagers. Eventually this very fact emerged as the company’s intrinsic strength. Moreover, the company had standardized its strategies in alignment to the upcoming fashion trends in the industry. Management had been one of the most important of all elements under the jurisdiction of the company in compliance to its policy of tracing its strategies in line with upcoming fashion trends. In terms of money management, Claire’s could rather be rated quite highly given that it h ad maintained insignificant levels of debts historically and in 2006 had no debt records as such. Analysis and Evaluation Growth rate in sales The number of stores under Claire’s Inc has increased significantly during the period 1992 to 2006. In the year 1992 the number of stores was 995 and this increased to 3050 in the year 2006. This implies a rise of more than three times. This has been achieved by the company through a rapid acquisition drive pursued by

Global financing and exchange rate mechanisms Essay

Global financing and exchange rate mechanisms - Essay Example Big Mac was specifically under consideration because it was the only chain present in almost every country and have an affordable price, that can be dealt with an average income individual (Kotler & Armstrong, 2009). BIG MAC THEORY: Mc Donald’s best selling product is Big Mac. While hanging out with friends, or for lunch or dinner, people order mouth watering Big Mac with accessories. Big Mac Theory is a theory named to make this product, the most profiting product around the globe. The theory that stabilizes the Big Mac profit is the relationship between currencies, the United States Dollar (USD) with other foreign currencies at current exchange rates. Fed, an economist calls this exchange rate theory a game of achieving with currency rates. Big Mac theory tells us that the original exchange rate that is a nominal exchange rate was adjusted for the ratio of different prices to local prices that allows economists to compare the purchasing power of different currencies (Kotler & Armstrong, 2009). To make it clearer PPP Purchasing Power Parity of foreign currencies is measured by the use of Big Mac Theory. Local currency is used for price comparison and will convert it into USD. The country in which Big Mac price in terms of USD is supposedly be higher, it is considered to have an overvalue in comparison to U.S. dollars. Opposite to this if the estimated price in terms of USD is low then it is an undervalued currency. Globally it is considered to be a consistent price around the globe. This theory is referred as Purchasing Power Parity (Kennedy, 2006). Other then Purchasing Power Parity, many factors are there to put influence on the price of Big Mac. Factors other than PPP are labor cost, rent, and other surcharges, which later are added while fixing the final price but that only affects the local consumers and have no relation with McDonald’s head institution. If the exchange rates are allowed to fluctuate, the currency value will establish and ca n be factorized efficiently in these variables that allow investors to employ capital inflow efficiently. In short, Big Mac theory is about profits at exchange rates (Kotler & Armstrong, 2009). GLOBAL FINANCING OPERATIONS AND EXCHANGE RATE MECHANISMS: Global financing operations are for those institutions that work or invest on an international level and follow set standard regulations, opposed to institutions who work on regional or national level. To maintain these operations, IMF, World Bank, government agencies and ministries of finance design laws and rules through understanding and economic laws. McDonald’s is an international food chain and running its franchises all around the globe. It follows a law of one price that means that selling price is fixed in one currency and is sold at the same rate in any country at the exchange rate (Kennedy, 2006). Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) explains that purchasing power of Big Mac vary according to the price that comes out at exch ange rate. For example if Big Mac is sold at $2.5 in U.S., the rate of Big Mac in U.K will be ?2. It does not include tariff charges or carriers to keep cost neutral (Kotler & Armstrong, 2009). RISK MANAGEMENT: McDonald’s Big Mac is sold every day in different regions in different quantities. It very much depends upon the purchasing power

What is the future of the modern state What are the challenges to the Essay

What is the future of the modern state What are the challenges to the modern state - Essay Example nomenon of â€Å"multi-level governance† like umbrella governance bodies similar to European Union, is another aspect of change that is happening to the modern nation state (Pierson, 160). A major challenge associated with these changes is the â€Å"loss of control for individual national governments† (Pierson, 161). Yet another challenge is the need of doing negotiations and building consensus to act (Pierson, 155-156). Each modern nation state is presently transforming into homes to many ethnicities and races and hence global migration and the related social issues are emerging as new matter to attend to (Pierson, 163). This is also a potential area where the skill of the state for negotiations, and for interactions with multi-level governance systems, is tested (Pierson, 165). As the political autonomy of the states get merged into economic and other realms that have grown in weight, it is expected that a new form of state is emerging, namely, the â€Å"empire† (qtd. in Pierson, 170). The â€Å"empire† is defined in this context as â€Å"a new economic-industrial- communicative machine† that incorporates into itself, â€Å"the decline of nation state authority, the ubiquity of global capitalism, the importance of networks, new information technologies, and the extension of new forms of governance† (Pierson, 171). Hence, a new future and unforeseen challenges for modern state is emerging every day, every moment, in a complex flux that carries within it, the â€Å"empire† and its infinite expressions (Pierson,

Political and Socioeconomic Essay Example for Free

Political and Socioeconomic Essay The communication gap between First and Third world feminist, as expressed by Narayan lies within a cultural setting: though Western feminism is still an upholding to the rights of women, Third world feminism speaks towards a culture’s specific issues, as Narayan writes, â€Å"I am arguing that Third-World feminism is not a mindless mimicking of ‘Western agendas’ in one clear and simple sense that, for instance, Indian feminism is clearly a response to issues specifically confronting many Indian women† (13). Thus, feminism is explicit to country and cultural beliefs, not hinging upon a predetermined, or in this case Western view. There are many people, mostly women, who have been fighting for their equal rights – and we now commonly call this as feminism. Feminism started not merely on 19th century, but even during the 17th to 18th century. This is the very reason why feminists have gotten so much attention from well respected organization and government officials. With this idea in mind, many are now asking, who are the women who started the feminist movements and what prompted them to initiate such action? By digging deeper to what the real meaning of feminism is, it can also be identified the first few women who fought and strived really hard just to show the world that feminism is indeed worth fighting for. These women have their own issues that they highlighted and it all boils down to the fact that females are not just a decoration for males, instead, they are people who can be effective even in dealing with other important aspects of he society like the government. Feminists’ ideas started during the time of the infamous Enlightenment, with Lady Mary Wortley Montagu and the Marquis de Condorcet who initiated championing womens education. The first scientific society for women was founded in Middleberg, a city in the south of the Dutch republic, in 1785. Journals for women which focused on issues like science became popular during this period as well. Mary Wollstonecrafts A Vindication of the Rights of Woman is one of the first works that can be called feminist, although by modern standards her comparison of women to the nobility, the elite of society, coddled, fragile, and in danger of intellectual and moral sloth, does not sound like a feminist argument. Wollstonecraft believed that both sexes contributed to this situation and took it for granted that women had considerable power over men. Indeed, it was during the late 17th century to the early 18th century that the earliest works on the so-called woman question criticized the restrictive role of women, without necessarily claiming that women were disadvantaged or that men were to blame (Deckard, 1975). When 18th century came, the movement is generally believed to have begun as people increasingly came to believe that women were treated unfairly under the law. The feminist movement is rooted in the West and especially in the reform movement of the 19th century. The organized movement is dated from the first womens rights convention at Seneca Falls, New York, in 1848 (Deckard, 1975). This feminism started not on one place or country, but coincidentally, a lot of women from various countries around the world fought for their rights as and equal and rightful members of the society. Emmeline Pankhurst was one of the founders of the suffragette movement and aimed to reveal the institutional sexism in British society, forming the Womens Social and Political Union (WSPU). Often the repeated jailing for forms of activism that broke the law, particularly property destruction, inspired members went on hunger strikes. Due to the resultant force-feeding that was the practice, these members became very ill, serving to draw attention to the brutality of the legal system at that time. In an attempt to solve this the government introduced a bill that became known as the Cat and Mouse Act, which allowed women to be released when they starved themselves to dangerous levels, then to be re-arrested later. (Deckard, 1975). Meanwhile, the Feminist movement in the Arab world saw Egyptian jurist Qasim Amin, the author of the 1899 pioneering book Womens Liberation, as the father of Arab Feminist Movement. In his work Amin criticized some of the practices prevalent in his society at the time, such as polygamy, the veil, or womens segregation, and condemned them as un-Islamic, and contradicting the true spirit of Islam. His work had an enormous influence on womens political movements throughout the Islamic and Arab world, and is read and cited today (Deckard, 1975). Various women were able to raise their voices during that time. They were able to capture the attention of many and hear out their grievances. Let us take a closer look at each of the famous and most influential women during this Abolition Movement, and create a more prominent appreciation on their ways and methods of fighting for their cause. Among the most influential women whose actions were all aimed at highlighting the feminist rights, the Grimke sisters (Sarah Grimke and Angelina Grimke Weld) topped the list. Motivated by religion and a desire to live a useful life, they were among the first American women to speak in public. They wrote a number of tracts against slavery and for womans rights. To abolitionist acclamations, Angelina became the first American woman to address a state legislature. Both sisters would remain abolitionists and womans rights activists for the remainder of their lives with Angelina concentrating on the abolitionist movement and Sarah concentrating on the womans rights movement (Lerner, 1998). Sarah Grimke offered the best and most coherent Bible argument for womans equality yet written by a woman. She was also able to identify and characterize the distinction between sex and gender; she took class and race into consideration; and she tied the subordination of women both to educational deprivation and sexual oppression. She identified men, individually and as a group, as having benefited from the subordination of women. Above all, she understood that women must acquire feminist consciousness by conscious effort and that they must practice asserting their rights in order to think more appropriately (Lerner, 1998). Angelina, on the other hand, in several of her pamphlets and speeches, developed a strong argument for womens rights to political equality. In her insistence on womens right, even duty, to organize for political participation and to petition, she anticipated the practice and tactics women would follow for the rest of the century. In both her Appeal to Southern Women and in her Letters to Catherine Beecher she fashioned a defense of womens right to organize in the antislavery cause which connected it with the causes of white women and influenced the practice of several succeeding generations (Lerner, 1998). It is therefore in culture that the main difference between First-World and Third-World feminism lays. The treatment of women in India is one filled with hypocrisy. In Narayan’s essay, the India chastises Western civilization for their treatment of women; for instance, Indian women were permitted to attend higher education classes decades before the English even considered the aspect. Indian’s say that they treat their women as goddesses, while the West treats their women far less as equals, but this in turn is duplicitous, in examples Narayan gives of the treatment from men received by her grandmothers, and her mother (chastisement, beatings, and submissiveness, and silence). Narayan gives childhood examples of how she became a feminist, and they are not dominantly rooted in the idea of Westernization, but culturally in a Third-World view, as she writes, â€Å"†¦though I cannot bring myself to it, of her pain that surrounded me when I was young, a pain that was earlier than school and ‘Westernization’, a call to rebellion that has a different and more primary root, that was not conceptual or English, but in the mother-tongue† (7). This then gives insight into how feminism isn’t dependent upon the introduction of Western culture in liberating women, but is in fact contingent upon a witness’s own account of oppression and their reaction to that oppression, that is that Narayan’s own rebellion was a response to her mother’s sadness in being trapped by her mother-in-law and her marriage. This exemplifies the difference between First-World and Third-World feminism, the fact that Narayan must contend with the paradigm of Western feminism instead of simply revered as representing her own culture’s fault; Narayan is not representing Western ideas but is only supporting equality and fair treatment for her fellow Indian women. In the Indian culture, women are perceived to become wives first and their own identity as a person is wiped away by such a paradigm, this is true for the incentive of women’s movements, the West included. Indian wives are submissive and the Third-World culture enhances this notion by parlaying women into marriage at the age of thirteen (as Narayan’s grandmother had done), and treating them as Other rather than as Self. Narayan writes of the predominant sentiment found in India in regards to women, â€Å"They were anxious about the fact that our independence and self-assertiveness seemed to be making us into women who lacked the compliance, deference, and submissiveness deemed essential in good â€Å"Indian† wives† (8). The wife and mother ideas of women are predominant in most cultures, and the concord factor between First and Third world feminism is united in this fact, and their rebellion against such submissiveness. The culture of feminism is presented as one that has great bonds with politics. For both First-World and Third-World feminism there is no difference in the root of feminism when it is in politics, and political campaigns that women are often secluded: in schooling, voting, and citizenship, women have been treated secondarily in both First and Third world cultures. Therefore, Narayan’s generation of Third-world feminist aren’t rebelling because of Westernization, but because in their own politics women have been forgotten in India and in the West, â€Å" It takes political connections to other women and their experiences, political analyses of women’s problems, and attempts to construct political solutions for them, to make women into feminists in any full-blooded sense, as the history of women’s movements in various parts of the world shows us. † Therefore, the dichotomy of First-World and Third-World feminism finds harmony in this political connection. The westernization of Indian has been blamed for the rebellious nature of feminism and even the introduction of the women’s movement, but in fact, it is the own culture’s deviant nature that gives rise to the necessity of feminism. Narayan gives example of her cousin being tortured with cigarettes and being locked away while in another country and keeping silent about it for years until a relative came to visit. The silence is the devastating part of the story; in Indian culture, it is supposed and indeed ingrained in Indian women to hold their tongues, and be submissive, and not innocent, but obedient. Yet, western culture was seen to pervade the Indian traditional way of living, â€Å"Veiling, polygamy, child-marriage, and sati were all significant points of conflict and negotiation between colonizing â€Å"Western† culture and different colonized third-World cultures. In these conflicts, Western colonial powers often depicted indigenous practices as symptoms of the â€Å"backwardness and barbarity’ of Third-World cultures in contract to the â€Å"progressiveness of Western culture. † The figure of the colonized woman became a representation of the oppressiveness of the entire ‘cultural tradition’ of the colony. â€Å" (17) The effect of this colonization of Indian women was one of conflicting progressiveness. Traditions of Indian culture were already bred with English sentiments (such as the sari) and English clothing was continually being upgraded and introduced into Indian culture; in fact men were wearing suits long before women were allowed to change into less traditional clothing. In one example Narayan gives, she and her family went on a vacation in a more rural part of the country and she was instructed to wear her Indian clothing and not her Western clothes because she had hit puberty (though in the city nothing was wrong with such clothes), Narayan writes, â€Å"My story reveals that what counted as ‘inappropriately Western dress’ differed from one specific Indian context to another, even within the same class and caste community†(27). The effects of Westernization therefore and colonization give rise to differing ideas of what constitutes traditional wear from one part of the country to another. In conclusion, Narayan gives insight to how differing opinions of feminism are still spurned from similar ideals. Third-World feminists are not ‘outsiders within’, that is, they are not denying the tradition of their country, but instead, feminists need to challenge some of the more patriarchal rules of India. Third-World feminists are not denying their culture, but are asking for change. Work Cited Ahmed, Sara (2004). â€Å"The Cultural Politics of Emotion†. Routledge Publishing Boydston, Kelley, Margolis, The Limits of Sisterhood, p. 178. Deckard, Barbara. 1975. The Womens Movement: Political, Socioeconomic and Psychological Issues New York: Harper Row. p. 253. Gerda Lerner. 1988. The Grimke Sisters from South Carolina: Pioneers for Womens Rights and Abolition. Oxford University Press. Narayan, Uma. Speech and Silence in the Mother Tongue. Yee. Shirley J. Abolitionist Movement. February 2002. Sunshine for women. http://www. pinn. net/~sunshine/whm2002/abolitn. html

The Concept Of Doubt Philosophy Essay

The Concept Of Doubt Philosophy Essay About 4th century BC when the anti-vedic Movements like Buddhism etc has started, The exponents of the vedic Philosophy and religion keenly felt the need of showing greater accommodation to rationalistic modes of thought. The rationalistic sources available for vedics religion and philosophy has to be pooled together and kept fit for defensive and offensive use. And Hence the Nyaya with epistemological exegesis and the Physics and logic of the anti- vedic vaishesika were put together. The doctrines of these two schools were systematised and redacted. Hence it was the time when the Nyaya-vasishesika had merged together, now all we are studying in nyaya is the Physics of vaishesika and Logic and epistemology of Nyaya. Though there are some differences in respect to Physical laws of in Nyaya and Vaishesika they have so many common points, hence they were merged together. The Vasihesika and Nyaya are not restricted to their scope and aim to logic in a narrow sense, With the material of the Vaishesika and its Physics along with Nyaya forms a complete system of epistemology and logic combined to some extent with psychology, Physics, ethics, ontology, religion. Such a mixed composition of Indian philosophical system is due not to any lack of appreciation of differences of value in different things, but rather to cultural outlook of India, Which is dominated by an intense desire to synthesize all the departments of knowledge in a scheme of progressive realization of truths and the universe we live in. The scheme of Nyayas external relation, its dialectic machinery, its theory of truth and error, its creationistic view of causation, its thought measuring devices and precise formulas form its ever-spread never fading foliage. Its chief boast is its Logical dialectic machinery, which the believers and the heretics, The astikas and the nastikas alike, cannot do without. In Indian Philospohy it is said that whoever knows the Nyaya, knows the pramana,is a pramanavith, i.e a philosopher in a strict sense Nyaya signifying logic is etymologically identical with Avyaya the five membered syllogisms. Nyaya defined in many ways like the Hetu-Vidya or Hetu-sastra means the science of causes, Anvikishiki The science of inquiry, Pramana sastra the science of valid knowledge, Tattva-sastra the science of categories , Tarka sastra the science of reasoning , Vaddahrta the science of discussion and Phkkika sastra the science of sophism. Nyaya is chiefly concerned with Valid Knowledge and its source.The Nyayas Realism and the Vaishesika Atomistic Pluralism when put together is called the theory of everything. Hence Nyaya combined with Vaishesika can be called as The theory of everything in one word. Beginning from the vast universe to the atoms in the matter every thing was clearly explained by two great scientist of the ancient India, They are Kannada and Gautama. These people should be identified as scientist rather than sages. These two scientists and explained the major concepts regarding man, nature, society and science.. Their works are undoubtedly greatest contributions to the Mankind. Even when I entered the field of nyaya, I was amazed to see that how, these ancient scientists has coined the definition of Gravitation and Sound. It was mentioned that sound travels in the form of waves. Not only these the famous Newton 3rd law That every action has an equal and opposite reaction and the Einsteins concept of matter,I.e matter can neither be created nor destroyed was clearly explained. The name Kannada itself suggests that Atom -eater,He had done extensive research on the atoms and had a very scientific approach towards the universe. When I came through these concepts,I was really amazed, that how these people can formulate these postulates some 2600years ago. At the same time there are many lapses and misconceptions too, we do not know whether these were in the original texts or induced in between. Here I would like to mention one quote of the Famous economist of the ancient India- Pradipaha sarva vidyanam Upayaha sarva karmanam Asrayaha sarva dharmanam anvikishiko Matha!! This is the Quote of Kautilya the Great Philosopher who proposed theory on economy famously called artha sastra This means- Nyaya has ever been esteemed as lamp of all sciences, the resource for all the actions and the shelter of all virtues Of all the Nations in the world the Indians and Greeks appear to to have developed Logic and epistemology to large extent, Independently. except the Five membered Syllogism. Indian Logic is dated back to 6th century BC and the Greek logic originated in the fourth century BC though its germs can be traced a little earlier in the controversies of the sophist and Socrates . The Aristotle can be called the Gautama of Greece. The five membered syllogism is a gift from India to the Greeks.it is written in the history that the Indians meeting some foreign person at sweetadweepa had taught this syllogism to the Greeks.( controversies are there regarding this) Although the word Logic is being used as a synonym to Nyaya, but it is not Identical with it. Logic only covers some of the subjects of Nyaya. The Indian Logic and epistemologys development can be divided into three periods namely Ancient (650BC-100AD) Medieval (100AD-1200AD) Modern (From 1200 AD) Nyaya originated in the ancient period i.e before 650BC and there are many commentaries on the Nyaya and, some thousands of commentaries are there are on the Nyaya-Sutras of Gautama and at the same time there are many commentaries which actually misinterprets the Concepts of Nyaya. During the medieval period Navya-Nyaya had came into existence which had misinterpreted the many concepts of the Nyaya Philosophy and during the modern period there were many commentaries written on the Navya Nyaya, Thus totally ignoring the original Nyaya sutras(Tenets). But the Nyaya is unapproachable to the English speaking world as the texts are in Sanskrit Language and most of the translated texts are covering only the first part of the Nyaya and even those translations arent totally based on the concepts of manuscripts. The nyaya sutra contains five Adhyayas (books); each Adhyaya consists of Anhikas (chapters); each Anhika has a number of sutras (aphorisms). According to the standard method mentioned above Gautama has discussed his categories and subcategories in different parts of his work. The commentators follow his treatment. Generally this discussion involved refutation of contrary views. Since the commentators refer not only to such views as are mentioned by Gautama but also not only development the exposition tends to become complicated. In order to highlight the basic doctrines and arguments of the Naiyayakas(people who follow Nyaya) and opponents I have classified the themes of the nyaya sutra under the following main heads: central theme Theory of Cognition Concept of proof It is well known fact that the authors of Nyaya and vasihesika are Gautama and Kannada, it is difficult to say that whether the systems started separately or and being allied in general attitude and view point became mixed up in later ages or an original fund of floating Ideas. The word Nyaya popularly signifies right or justice,Hence the Nyaya sastra is the science of Right judgment or reasoning, the Chinese can-li and the Tibetans rigs-bstan-bcos as equivalents of the Sanskrit Nyaya-sastra, expresses exact the same meaning. In fact the Nyaya(Logic) was in course of time deservedly held in very high esteem. If it were allowed to follow its original course unimpeded by religious dogmas, it would have risen to the very height of perfection, Nevertheless the principles of Nyaya entering into the different systems of Philosophy gave them each its proper compactness and cogency just as Bacons Inductive method shaped the sciences and philosophies of a later age in a different country.it is however to be regretted that during the last five hundred years the Nyaya has been mixed up with Law(Smrirti,Rheotric(alanakara),Vedanta,etc) and thereby has hampered the growth of those branches of knowledge upon which it has grown up as a sort of parasite. But the subject is an never aging queen. The Concept Of Doubt in The Great Indian Philospohy Introduction Every school of philosophy in India has attempted a theory of knowledge on which its metaphysical and axiological structures are based. The ultimate goal of philosophizing, and for that matter of all human enterprises, is to realize perfection or fullest all round efflorescence of ones potentialities (moksha or nihsreyasa) as the summum bonum of life and existence. For this realization knowledge of reality (Tattvajnana) is essential and necessary prerequisite. So, a theory of knowledge is regarded as propaedeutic to a theory of reality because before knowing the reality one has to know knowledge itself. This requirement is grounded in the fact that to philosophize is to reflect on the nature of reality given in experience. Every experience is caused by and pertains to an object. This reference to an object can be cognitive or non-cognitive like emotive, volitional etc. A cognitive reference consists in revelation of an object (pakasa) or in making a cognizer aware of it. Though every cognitive reference reveals an object, there is always a possibility of going astray in this reference and there is no guarantee that it will adequately and faithfully reveals its objects. This possibility of error and doubt in cognitive reference necessitates an enquiry in to is veracity. The entire epistemological pursuit begins and centers round this task. So along with consideration of objects of knowledge (prameya) and modes of knowing (pramana) there has to be awareness abut error and doubt as well so that they can be eliminated. Need for evidencing knowledge:- A cognitive reference is cognition of an object in terms of its existence, nature, characteristics, relations and functions etc. It may reveal its objects as it is (yathartha) or different from what it is (ayathartha) or there may be lack of determination of this (samsaya). That cognition is knowledge which reveals its objects as it is, i.e. which is non-discordant (avisamvadaka) with its object. Such cognition is technically known as Valid cognition prama (pramana in some schools where no distinction is drawn between prama and pramana). All other varieties of cognition are treated as different from knowledge. In other words, only that cognition can claim the status of knowledge the non-discordances or truth of which is well established through adequate evidences. There has to be assuredness/indubitability (asamdigdhatva) with regard to the truth of that cognition. The truth of knowledge is to be established on the basis of cogent and convincing evidence known as pramana. Indian thinkers point out three essential components of knowledge. They are cognitive reference to an object (arthavisayakatva), exactitude of reference (yatharthatva) and indubitability (asamdigdhatva) about exactitude. The object must be real and not fictitious. The exactitude of reference means true apprehension of the object and indubitability means adducing adequate and sufficient evidence (s) for its truth. In this essay an attempt will be made to analyze the phenomenon of doubt in its diverse forms and facets and with different perspectives. The treatment is not confined to any one system of thought as the chief feature of Indian thought is {bahuuidhavada and the mode of philosophizing is Vade vade jayate tattvabodhab} Importance of doubt Doubting is very important in human life to avoid credulous nature leading to blind faith and dogmatic belief. That is why Lord Buddha used to advise pariksya madvacah grahyah'(Accept what I say only after proper inquiry). This is what Pyrroh said in respect of Stoics in ancient Greece. Vatsyayana, the commentator on the Nyayasutras, opines that inquiry or logical investigation begins only in respect of samsayite arthe (doubtful object of cognition), thought of course Jayanata, another Nyaya thinker, states that samsayamantarenapi inquiry can begin apart from doubt as well. The other factor can be jijnasa (inquisitiveness), sisadhayisa (will to prove), or pariprccha (questioning attitude). That is why in Indian epistemological thinking we find different approaches to paksa'(Subject) mainly discussed in the context of anumana(Inference). Need to eliminate doubt Though doubting is useful, persistent doubting is detrimental, as Yajnavalkya rightly says about persistent questioning in the Brhadaranyakopanisad. Doubting can be a starting point for rise of knowledge or for verification of knowledge. This is what the Bhagwadgita advised (Tadviddhi pranipatenapariprasnenesavaya) or Lord Buddha advised as stated earlier. But persistent doubt is harmful to mental peace (anistanivarana prasanga). That is why the Bhagvadgita says, Samsayatma Vinasyati$. In order to have unwavering acivity (niskampapravrtti) also resolution or elimination of doubt is necessary. So doubt should be initial and not final. Here a distinction can be drawn between cessation of doubt and elimination of doubt. Cessation of doubt is psychological and elimination of doubt is logical. Psychological satisfaction may lead to cessation but doubt may crop up again. Only logically there can be final elimination. This distinction becomes significant in context of the controversy between Udayana and Sriharsa and Sriharsa and Gangesa and we shall revert to it later on. A deeper analysis of this issue is really enlightening and outstanding contribution to epistemology. Some conceptual distinctions The theorizing about doubt is known as samsayavada in Sanskrit. Samsayavada (Skepticism) is to be distinguished from Ucchedavada (Nihilism). In Ucchedavada doubting leads to denial of possibility of acquiring knowledge. It can be brought under Vitanda{Cavil}. The Tattvoplavasinha of Jayarasi Bhatta belongs to this category. Likewise, skepticism is to be distinguished from Agyeyavada (Agnositism). The Neti Neti statement of the Upanisads can be subsumed under this. In Lokayata/Carvaka philosophers and in Bhrtrhari, the author of Vakyapadyi (II.32-35), we find Limited Skepticism. In Nagarjuna (Vigrahavyavartini and Madhyamikakarika) and Sriharsa (Khandanakhandakadya) we have Methodogical Skepticism. In the western thought we find several other verities of Samsayavada like Epistemological Skepticism of Descartes and Psychological Skepticism of Hume. One can find their parallels also in Indian thought referred to in the Pali Tripitakas. It has to be noted that the Lokayata Skepticism has provided tremendous impetus for the development of Nyaya and Buddhist epistemology. Likewise Sriharsas contribution can not be minimized in respect of Gangesas philosophy. It is not the objective of this essay to go into details of these multiple approaches and their inputs. Hence landing on the point Nature of doubt Gautama in the Nyayasutras has given a very precise and comprehensive definition of samsaya which needs cognizance and analysis. He defines it is follows: Samanekadharmapapatteuipattervipatterupaladhyanupalabdhyavyauyauasthtasca visheshapekhso vimarsah samsayah. It can be split as follows: Samanadharma Anekadharma Tayorupapatti Vipratipatti Upalabdhi Anupalabhi Auyauashasca Visheashapeksah Vimarsah The above definition can be explained as below: Doubt arises due to having conflicting notions about one and the same object. Here mind oscillates (dolayate) between two or more alternative characterizations of that object arising from the cognition of common qualities of two or more objects and non-cognition of specific qualities of that object. Due to intervention of memory (Prasastapada rightly brings in the role of memory) mutually incompatible notions are suggested simultaneously and there is no fixity on any one notion resulting in absence of firm-assuredness in any one. Here there is no assertion or denial of any one and hence there is no definite judgment. It is absence of assured cognition and oscillation between conflicting notions. Symbolically it can be put as It may be this or that or It may be this or that or none or something else. Now let us Know the difference between the Nyayas philosophical terms like Prama,Viparyaya,samsaya and anadhyvasaya Difference among prama, viparyaya, samsaya and anadhyvasaya: It may be useful to draw brief distinctions among some cognate epistemic terms stated above. Prama stands for a true cognition which carries certitude in its truth. It is uni-judgmental and well-evidenced. Viparyaya means a false judgment which was earlier taken to be true and later on its falsity is exposed on valid grounds and assuredness in its truth is withdrawn. It is also uni-judgmental. Samsaya is multi-judgmental and here there is no fixity on one single judgment. It is indecisive (anavadharanaka) Anadhyavasaya is incipient cognition. It is vague sensation. It is unripe cognition and non-judgmental. We may not call it as cognition at all. That is way in the Nyaya system it is not given cognizance. It is also different from pre-judgmental cognition known as nirvikalpaka pratyaksa in sanskrit. Samsaya is also to be distinguished from Iha accepted in the Jain tradition. {Likewise Pt. Badarinath Shukla in his Hindi Commentary on the Tarkabhasa of Kesavamisra has differentiated samsaya from samuccaya. But he regards sambhauana (probability) as a variety of samsaya. } Typology of doubt On different grounds there can be different classifications of doubt. One classification can be as follows: About the existence or absence of an object, e.g. whether a tumor is cancerous or not, or whether God exists or not etc. About properties of a substantive e.g, sound is eternal or not, or whether light traverses in the form of waves or corpuscles. About the presence of this or that object, e.g. whether it post or human. Here the alternatives can be two or more. The alternatives may all be false and this may necessitate further investigation. The alternatives may all be true in different contexts or from different perspectives. Or, only one alternative may be true and the rest false. It will be an interesting as well as rewarding exercise to work this out. The other typology is on the basis of type of pramana(valid knowledge. For example in the Nyaya system four types of pramanas are accepted and hence there can be four types of doubt pertaining to perceptual, inferential, testimonial and analogy-based identificational cognitions. Generating conditions of doubt Doubt may be generated by any defect in the causal collocation (karana samagri) of knowledge as follows Defective functioning of cognitive senses due to various reasons. Epistemological thinkers have discussed these factors in great depth. Doubt may be generated due to faulty intervention of memory Mental delusion or disturbance may cause doubt And finally absence of conclusive evidence may result in doubt. Role of Tarka in removal of doubt. We may now revent to the problem of elimination of doubt. Just as doubting is helpful in arriving at truth, removal of doubt is also equally needed. Doubt arises due to presentation of conflicting alternatives (kotis) which may be contrary or contradictory each one claiming truth. This leads to oscillation and indecision in mind. So doubt has to be overcome to remove the deadlock and unless this is done, knowledge cannot be arrived at. In the case of different pramanas there are different modus operandi. For example , in the case of perceptual and analogical cognitions repeated observation, controlled experiment, crucial evidence (vinigamaka) etc. are helpful. In testimonial cognition conscience may be helpful but it cannot provide logical elimination. The Purva Mimamsa system accept Codana for this purpose which is regarded as infallible. But this problem of elimination of doubt has been discussed threadbare in the context of anumana(Inference) and this needs some analysis. The Carvaka/Lokayata thinkers raised serious objection for accepting validity of anumana(inference). Bhartrhari gave a classical formulation to their objections. This was extended by Nagarjuna and Sriharsa in their own way. Though Udayana in Nyayakusumanjali (Chapter III) and Santaraksita in Tattvasamgraha (1481-3) try their best to answer Carvaka/Lokayata objections, their replies have not been logically satisfactory. Any recourse to tarka or kalpana does not satisfy logical requirements. Udayanas arguments have been responded be Sriharsa and Gangesas replies to Sriharsa have been infirm. One may even refer to Raghunathas commentary on Khandanakhadyakhadya for this . Tarka rests on contradiction and contradiction itself rests on tarka. This involves the fallacy of pititio principi. In fact no human experience is immune from doubt and Sahara, the Purva Mimamsa thinkers, are right in this. For empirical purposes epistemology works well ultimately it falls down. That is why Adi Samkara has put all pramanavyavahara under avidya following the Upanisads. The point is that only on psychological grounds doubt can be resolved and there can not be logical elimination of doubt. The devil of doubt will always haunt human cognitive enterprises and we have to put up with that. But this is not pessimism but a warning to be vigilant. We do need epistemological inquiries but we have to be cautious and on the guard.

Comparing the McCarthy Hearings and McCarthyism with The Crucible Witch Trials :: compare and contrast essay examples

Throughout the history of mankind, the misapplication of power, marring of souls have been a part of life. How does this affect us, why does it happen? Human emotion plays a major role in prejudice and the politics that surround it are evident in today's society. Many things can define persecution. No matter how it is defined, it is a tragic event. About three hundred years ago, the witch trials of Salem were a hot topic. Two young girls deceitfully accused a slave, Tituba of witchery. Soon, callous accusations flew and the joke became a sad, sad reality. Fearing punishment, the two girls kept the charade going. The Puritan religion had no way to publicly admit their sins, and things they regret. Because of this, the trials played a role as an outlet for the society's misgivings. They had a way to express their feelings without being chastised. This anti-witch hysteria caused innocent people to die at the cry of others. In terror of being victimized themselves, people accused others of compacting with the devil. Hoping to possibly move the focus of the investigations elsewhere, many followed this unfortunate path. Hatred, denial, dread, perhaps even shock, were all driving factors behind the actions of the townspeople. In the end, almost two dozen innocent men and women were hanged, and hundreds charged or jailed. Moving to a more recent incident, The "Red Scare" of the '50s is a modern example of how a sophisticated people can be brought to such lows. Wanting to get the public's attention, McCarthy spawned a massive anti-Soviet campaign. Searches for people working among us that believed in communist views or someone who might know such a person became commonplace. The crusade itself was based on non-existent claims that some government workers were communists. Senator McCarthy's "proof" was never seen by anyone, further suggesting that his claims were little more than an attempt to intensify his political power base. Taking advantage of the public's views of the Soviet Republic communist system, McCarthy did indeed become an influential power in the U.S. Senate. To gain support, he and Abby fed on worries of the general populace. Both of them had gone from a nobody, someone with little control over anyone but themselves, to someone who could control anyone they pleased. Like Abigail in "The Crucible," his grapple of the situation soon crumbled leaving him dishonored.

Computers Evolvement in Education :: Technology in Education Essays

Computers Evolvement in Education Picture rows of students all of different ages, having different knowledge and scholastic aptitudes, all in one classroomà ¤with one teacher. This is the late 1700s when the teacher was the sole manager and source of knowledge in the classroom. Not until two hundred years later in 1951 did the slightest bit of outside technology enter the classroom when the television was first used as a classroom instructional aid. In the middle of the Cold War, President Eisenhower passed the National Defense Education Act of 1958, bringing more money into the countryÏ€s schools to purchase new technology such as mainframe host computers. The problem was that many school systems were stuck to their ways, and insisting on continuing use of the 1700s-style instructional teaching method. President Kennedy further supported technological advances with his 1963 Vocational Education Act. Teachers and schools again rejected technology, refusing to include the expensive mainframe and minicomputers into their lesson plans. It is surprising that computers ever got as far in education as are they are now. Two years later, in 1965, the Elementary and Secondary Education Act was born, giving public schools enough money to put the computers in all schools, but unfortunately, not in the classrooms. Computers were used primarily in administration and counseling offices at that point, not addressing the studentsÏ€ instructional needs. President Richard Nixon decelerated the countryÏ€s advances for technology in the classroom. During his presidency numerous programs designed to give more money to the nationÏ€s schools were cancelled. Host computers at this time were also rejected in the school systems, as they were seen to be unnecessary classroom components. After all, what more information do students need besides that given to them by their teacher? In 1975, about six years later, some schools across the nation finally were beginning to use mainframe and minicomputers, rejecting personal computers (PCs), which were steadily increasing in use and popularity outside the classroom. Apple Computer Company even donated Apple I PCs to schools that year in efforts to market PCs to primary schools.

Sugar :: essays research papers

Most sugar somes from sugar cane, about 55%. Sugar cane is a kind of grass that grows to the height of about 16 feet. It can onlt grow in tropical regians near the equator. It is usually cut by hand witha machete. It is then taken to prossecing plants to be refined. They statrt by pressing the cane to extract the juice, and then boiling the juice until it begins to thicken and sugar begins to crystalliz, then spinning the crystals in a centrifuge to remove the syrup, producing raw sugar. They then ship the raw sugar to a refinery where it is washed and filtered to remove remaining non-sugar ingredients and color. Beet sugar processing is similar, but it is done in one continuous process without the raw sugar stage. The sugar beets are washed, sliced and soaked in hot water to separate the sugar-containing juice from the beet fiber. The sugar juice is then purified, filtered, concentrated and dried. Sugar types are defined by their crystal size. "Regular" is the sugar found in everyday homes and kitchens. It is the white sugar called for in most cookbook recipes. The food processing industry describes "regular" sugar as extra fine or fine sugar. It is the sugar most used by food processors because of its fine crystals that are ideal for bulk handling. Fruit sugar is slightly finer than "regular" sugar and is used in dry mixes such as gelatin desserts, pudding mixes and drink mixes. Fruit sugar has a more uniform crystal size than "regular" sugar. The uniformity of crystal size prevents separation or settling of smaller crystals to the bottom of the box, an important quality in dry mixes and drink mixes. Bakers Specials' crystal size is even finer than that of fruit sugar. As its name suggests, it was developed specially for the baking industry and is used for sugaring doughnuts and cookies. Superfine, Ultrafine, or Bar Sugar, has the smallest crystal size is the finest of all the types of granulated sugar, and it great fo r drinks, like coffee, tea, and lemonade because it disolves so easily.

Advantage of SNS

The term Social Networking Site has often been used interchangeably with the term social network site. The definition of the two terms are one the same. According Boyd and Ellison, social network sites are, â€Å"web-based services that allow individuals to (1) construct a public or semi-public profile within a bounded system, (2) articulate a list of other users with whom they share a connection, and (3) view and traverse their list of connections and those made by others within the system.The nature and nomenclature of these connections may vary from site to site.† The authors chose the term network instead of networking simply because the latter term emphasizes building new relations between people. Although SNS have allowed people to meet others, it appears that the main purpose of SNS is to communicate with people who are already part of their extended social network.Social network sites are used in different ways and for different purposes. Users of such sites take advan tage of its various features that allow them to do different things. One feature of social network sites that is considered advantageous is that it allows users to share information with each other.Also, users have the option to share only the information that they want. Each user of each site has a profile page. This page contains a personalized description of the member.Demographic details, tastes, videos and photographs are the common things found on profiles. (Boyd) From these pages, the users can share their information with others people. Also, some use SNS to share pictures and videos with their friends.SNS are also useful for they allow users to build new relationships and maintain current ones. Some use such sites to meet new people. According to Lenhart and Madden, â€Å"For girls, social networking sites are places to reinforce pre-existing friendships, while for the boys who use the sites, the networks provide opportunities for flirting and making new friends.†Soc ial network sites are commonly utilized to communicate with friends. In a study conducted on why teens use social network sites, Lenhart and Madden found that, â€Å"91% of all social networking teens say they use the sites to stay in touch with friends they see frequently, while 82% use the sites to stay in touch with friends they rarely see in person.†Whatever type of relationship it is, it is evident that social networking sites build and foster relationships particularly friendships.Another reason why social networking sites are useful and popular is that it builds and strengthens communities. Social network sites allow users to choose the people who will become part of their network. These associations form the communities.Choosing Friends in social network sites give the users a chance to write their communities into being. (Boyd). SNS creates and improves communities based on similarities between users. Some sites such as MySpace connect people based on shared interest s. (Ellison et al)Also some sites such as Facebook allow its members to, â€Å"Join virtual groups based on common interests, see what classes they have in common, and learn each others' hobbies, interests, musical tastes, and romantic relationship status through the profiles.† (Ellison et al)Social network sites are advantageous because they allow users to create their identity and space. Through the profiles, the users are able to create an image of themselves. Their profile page is their space, defined they way they want and containing the things they want.More importantly, the user’s social network is his space and he has the ability to change it simply by adding or removing people from his list. His social network defines his identity as well. According to Donath and Boyd, â€Å"Public displays of connection serve as important identity signals.†Works Citedboyd, danah, & Ellison, Nicole. â€Å"Social network sites: Definition, history, and scholarship.† Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 2007, 13(1), article 11.   2 December 2007 .boyd, danah. â€Å"Why Youth (Heart) Social Network Sites: The Role of Networked Publics in Teenage Social Life.† In David Buckingham (Ed.), Youth, Identity, and Digital Media (pp. 119-142). Cambridge: MIT Press. 2 December 2007 .

Nursing

Community nurses are the nurses who work in a particular community for its welfare. With their ability to understand, they can deal with the health of residents living in any community. They work in the field of public health in order to perform tasks including population and community evaluation, development and implementation of community health programs and working in teams in order to work with discipline. Nurses in acute care settings work along with other health care specialists (Green, 27). The nurse is involved in the healing, security and recovery of intensely sick patients, looking after the health of healthy patience and operations of patients who are suffer from life threatening ailment. They perform non-clinical job that are vital for health care. Death and birth care is also provided by the nurses. Nurses practice in variety of acute settings that are available to them. They work in hospitals, schools, pharmaceutical companies, clinics, camps, militaries (Burbach, 98). Even though, nurses from different area of expertise seem to be more or less in abilities, we cannot conclude that nurses working in acute care settings are not capable. For example, Nurses working in critical care settings are experts on pregnancy and birth related aspects than community nurses. The question comes whether to justify that it is a false impression or a fact that a skill in one setting can be use as a skill in another (Humphrey, 19). When developing intermediary plans with requirements of constant management, the need of feedback and extra training is mandatory. This can help the nurses to put into practice and increase experience in non acute care settings before complete service changes are ready. This would enable the nurses to use their abilities and be confident to work in non acute settings. Equally essential, it is important for non acute setting nurses to continue with their education (Conrad, 28). The skills of dressing and taking care of wounds, having complete knowledge about the community’s resources, information on diabetes, patient family support and good communication skills with third party payers are very important when working in the community. These are the skills that help the nurse when working in the community. These nurses work under their leaders, learn in the learning atmosphere and accommodate themselves to adjustments to changes (Feldman, 17). They have the ability to work efficiently which has been dictated to them. They have the ability to work in a peaceful atmosphere and ignoring their colleague’s weaknesses. Nurses working in acute settings require the information, capabilities and experience to take care of their patients and the families. At the same time, the nurse creates loving, kind and restoring health environment. At the same time, they fulfill various responsibilities. They work directly with patients, they provide education to fresh nurses, they work as researchers, and they are managers (Shea, 67). A community nurse works independently as compared with nurses who work in acute settings. The main aim of a community nurse is to focus on the population and persons who do not necessarily seek out the services. Nurses working in acute care settings differ from community nurses in many ways. Nurses working in acute care settings do not have the access to direct clinical practice. They do not have the advance skills to provide education and teaching skills to patients and family (Loreti, 32). They work under superiors. They are not consultants and they do not take part in research. They carry out duties that are instructed to them. They do not require any leadership quality. They do not write policies or build partnerships.   They are restricted in certain working conditions (Stephany, 13). Nurses working in the acute care settings assess the critical and acute patient’s health status. Community nurses have to demonstrate the ability to make decisions for a variety of situations. They also need to demonstrate the need for promoting the rights of clients. They have to ensure the safety of their patients. Communications skills are very important for nurses working in the community and acute care settings. However community nurses require effective communication skills as compared with nurses working in acute care settings because the former might interact with poor and marginalized sections of society. A community nurse has to reflect primary health care principles to ensure that clients become independent and responsible (Brent, 10). An acute setting nurse on the other hand has to keep and document the health history of critical and chronically ill patients. A community nurse must have leadership and management skills to ensure that multiple approaches are used to assist the client in health issues (Wood, 17). Community nurses have to apply a public health framework to build community health nursing. They must plan and integrate health promotion into the aspects of community health nursing. They must also apply knowledge of health promotion to achieve public health policies (Hunt, 36). They must coordinate the development and implementation of health promotion plans. An acute settings nurse on the other hand is more concerned with assessing the needs of additional screening after initial assessment findings. They must have adequate skills to assess the impact of acute or chronic injuries on the individual (Bailey, 714). A nurse working in acute settings needs to be very quick and capable of working with complex and dependant patients. In the community settings, assessment and decision making abilities play an important role in the delivery of patient care. Nurses in the acute settings must quickly identify outcomes based on actual or potential diagnosis (Sobolewski, 12). Intervention plans are individualized according to the characteristics of the patients. The plan is developed in collaboration with other health professionals and family members.   They ensure that there is continuity of care and properly documented. A community nurse on the other hand must demonstrate the ability to have effective problem solving strategies. They must also make the use of systematic decision making techniques. These decisions need to be based on experience and clinical judgment. Community nurses have a higher degree of autonomy as compared with nurses working in acute settings. They have to participate in decision making to ensure accountability. They must also make appropriate solutions in response to a range of options (Harris, 14). Nurses in the community need to demonstrate the ability to make autonomous decisions and independence. They have to resolve complex situations using multiple approaches. A nurse working in the acute setting on the other hand does not have a high degree of autonomy. They also do not need to demonstrate a level of independence. Nurses working in the community differ from those who work in acute settings. They have work in developing community health programs and teams. Nurses in acute settings on other hand work for healing and recovery of intensely sick patients. Works Cited: Burbach CA. Community health and home health nursing: keeping the concepts clear. Nurse and Health Care. 1988; 9(2):96-100. Green PH. Meeting the learning needs of home health nurses. J Home Health Care Practice. 1994; 6(4):25-32. Conrad MB. Issues in home health nursing education. Home Healthcare Nurse. 1991; 9(4):21-28. Humphrey CJ. Home care nursing orientation model: justification and structure. Home Healthcare Nurse. 1992; 19(3):18-22. Shea AM. Transitioning professional nurses into home care: a 6-month mentorship program. J Home Health Care Practice. 1994; 6(4):67-72. Feldman R. Meeting the educational needs of home health care nurses. J Home Health Care Practice. 1993; 5(4):12-19. Stephany TM. Health hazard concerns of home care nurses: a staff nurse perspective. J Nurs Adm. 1993; 23(12):12-13. Loreti ST. Easing the transition from hospital nursing to home care: a research study. Home Healthcare Nurse. 1991; 9(4):32-35. Wood MJ. The educational needs of home health nurses. Home Healthcare Nurse. 1986; 4(3):11-17. Bailey C. Education for home care providers.JOGNN 1994; 23(8):714-719. Hunt P. When orientation is not enough.Home Healthcare Nurse. 1992; 10(6):36-40. Brent NJ. Orientation to home healthcare nursing is an essential ingredient of risk management and employee satisfaction.Home Healthcare Nurse. 1992; 10(2):9-10. Harris MD, Yuan J. Educating and orienting nurses for home healthcare. Home Healthcare Nurse. 1991; 9(4):9-14 Sobolewski S. `See you in home care.' Am J Nurs(Part 2: Career Guide). 1996; January:10,12,14.                                                             Nursing Nursing is like breathing for me. It is more than a purpose. Being a nurse will complement not only most people but my well-being as well. To become a nurse you need to be compassionate and able to pass college algebra and several science courses such as microbiology, chemistry, anatomy and physiology. I also need to take psychology, social sciences, and be proficient at written and oral communication. I need to be able to read at a tenth grade level. For many, 9/11 was a turning point in their professional lives. People began to find they were not satisfied in jobs that didn't make a difference in someone's life. Others had always wanted to become a nurse but other factors influenced their decisions and now they want to pursue a career in nursing. I might find it easier than you thought to have a second career as a nurse. Nursing is extremely hard work, both physically and emotionally. Not everyone is cut out for it. It's not just the blood and gore that might make you think twice. I have to understand what nursing involves before you choose this route. I don't have to just work in a hospital to be a nurse. I am about to find out more opportunities for nurses as well as the educational requirements to achieve these roles. Healthcare is one of the fastest growing professions throughout the world. The population ages, and healthcare costs rise, the demand for nurses will continue to increase as well. The health care delivery system is shifting, and nurses, particularly those with advanced education, will be in demand for quite some time.   With the rising costs of healthcare, physicians are spending less time with patients, and nurses are shifting into an ever expanding role of health educator, as well as providing more direct care to the patients. Effects of Nursing Shortage The present population of nurses is aging and approaching retirement. This will compound the current shortage of nurses worldwide. I am bent to become one of one the thousands of nurses that aspire to undertake this profession. The shortage nurses are causing a dramatic increase in salaries for nurses but this is not a hindrance to become a nurse. For one to become a nurse, he or she should be more than dedicated with his profession. Patients are to be treated like they are family as well, so as to feel at home during their confinement in the hospital. Hospitals and other facilities are competing for nurses with sign-on bonuses, and packages including cars, childcare and/or eldercare assistance, and housing assistance. Attractive salaries, bonuses, and job security are not the only benefits for nurses. Caring for others and making a difference in the lives of others everyday is a rewarding aspect to a career in nursing. It's something that can be said to be missing in many careers. The shortage of nurses has forced employers to not only adjust salaries, but to look outside the box at alternative and flexible working conditions. Many more opportunities are available for per diem, part time as well as full time employees. Flexible work schedules and job sharing opportunities are emerging in the field to help nurses meet the demands of their families while managing a rewarding career. One way you can see for yourself first hand is to become a patient, but that is not the recommended route. Many young people choose nursing because of past experiences as a patient or through the experiences of a loved one or a close friend. Other ways include volunteering in a local hospital. Many still use candy stripers, or have auxiliaries which train volunteers to read to patients, to assist with wheelchair transportation at discharge, running library carts, etc. Another way is to seek out a shadow day experience. Talk to your guidance counselor and see if it is possible to set one up. Sometimes local hospitals and clinics offer these periodically. Call your local facility and inquire. Perhaps you ca help them to do this if they don't already. Nursing schools may offer shadow day experiences. Some are beginning to offer Nursing Camps for a week during the summer. You live on campus and attend events and tours of their hospital facilities. You shadow nurses, and earn your CPR. You may also learn to take vital signs and visit laboratory facilities. You may get to enter a hyperbaric chamber and observe in the Emergency rooms and Operating Rooms. Yet this is what I aspire to be. Nursing is not just a profession for me it is passion that will take me places and would complement me as a person. Nursing Nursing is involved in identifying its own unique knowledge base—that is, the body of knowledge essential to nursing practice, or a so-called nursing science. To identify this knowledge base, nurses must develop and recognize concepts and theories that are specific to nursing. Theory has been defined as a supposition or system of ideas that is proposed to explain a given phenomenon. For now, think of theory as a major, very well articulated idea about something important. The four most influential theories from the 20th century were Marx’s theory of alienation, Freud’s theory of the unconscious, Darwin’s theory of evolution, and Einstein’s theory of relativity. Most undergraduate students are introduced to the major theories in their disciplines. Psychology majors study Freud and Jung’s theories of the unconscious, Sullivan and Piaget’s theories of development, and Skinner’s theory of behaviorism. Psychology majors are also introduced to critiques of those theories. Sociology majors study Marx’s theory of alienation and Weber’s theories of modern work, as well as the critiques of their theories. Both sociology and psychology majors spend the majority of their time studying theories and approaches to research. This paper discusses how nursing theory is different from medicine. II. Background A. Purposes of Nursing Theory Direct links exist among theory, education, research, and clinical practice. a)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In Education Because nursing theory was used primarily to establish the profession’s place in the university, it is not surprising that nursing theory became more firmly established in academia than in clinical practice. In the 1970s and 1980s, many nursing programs identified the major concepts in one or two nursing models, organized these concepts into a conceptual framework, and attempted to organize the entire curriculum around that framework. The unique language in these models was typically introduced into program objectives, course objectives, course descriptions, and clinical performance criteria. The purpose was to elucidate the central meanings of the profession and to gain status vis-à  -vis other professions. Occasionally, the language of nursing syllabi became so torturous that neither the faculty nor the students had a clear understanding of what was meant. Many nursing programs have abandoned theory-driven conceptual frameworks. III. Discussion A. In Research Nurse scholars have repeatedly insisted that nursing research identifies the philosophical assumptions or theoretical frameworks from which it proceeds. That is because all thinking, writing, and speaking is based on previous assumptions about people and the world. New theoretical perspectives provide an essential service by identifying gaps in the way we approach specific fields of study such as symptom management or quality of life. Different theoretical perspectives can also help generate new ideas, research questions, and interpretations. Grand theories only occasionally direct nursing research. Nursing research is more often informed by midlevel theories that focus on the exploration of concepts such as pain, self-esteem, learning, and hardiness. Qualitative research in nursing and the social sciences can also be grounded in theories from philosophy or the social sciences. The term critical theory is used in academia to describe theories that help elucidate how social structures affect a wide variety of human experiences from art to social practices. In nursing, critical theory helps explain how these structures such as race, gender, sexual orientation, and economic class affect patient experiences and health outcomes. a)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In Clinical Practice Where nursing theory has been employed in a clinical setting, its primary contribution has been the facilitation of reflection, questioning, and thinking about what nurses do. Because nurses and nursing practice are often subordinated to powerful institutional forces and traditions, the introduction of any framework that encourages nurses to reflect on, think about, and question what they do provides an invaluable service. An increasing body of theoretical scholarship in nursing has been outside the framework of the formal theories presented in the next pages. Benner (2000) argues that formalistic theories are too often superimposed on the life-worlds of patients, overshadowing core values of the profession and our patient’s humanity. Philosophy is used to explore both clinical and theoretical issues in the journal Nursing Philosophy. Family theorists and critical theorists have encouraged the profession to move the focus from individuals to families and social structures. Debates about the role of theory in nursing practice provide evidence that is nursing is maturing, both as an academic discipline and as a clinical profession. B. Nursing Theories The nursing theories discussed in this paper vary considerably (a) in their level of abstraction; (b) in their conceptualization of the client, health/illness, environment, and nursing; and (c) in their ability to describe, explain, or predict. Some theories are broad in scope; others are limited. The works presented in this paper may be categorized as philosophies, conceptual frameworks or grand theories, or midlevel theories (Tomey, 2001). A philosophy is often an early effort to define nursing phenomena and serves as the basis for later theoretical formulations. Examples if philosophies are those of Nightingale, Henderson, and Watson. Conceptual models/grand theories include those of Orem, Rogers, Roy, and King, whereas midlevel theorists are Peplau, Leininger, Parse, and Neuman. a)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Nightingale’s Environmental Theory Florence Nightingale, often considered the first nurse theorist, defined nursing more than 100 years ago as â€Å"the act of utilizing the environment of the patient to assist him in his recovery (Nightingale, 1999). She linked health with five environmental factors: (1) pure or fresh air, (2) pure water, (3) efficient drainage, (4) cleanliness and (5) light, especially direct sunlight. Deficiencies These environmental factors attain significance when one considers that sanitation conditions in the hospitals of the mid-1800s were extremely poor and that women working in the hospitals were often unreliable, uneducated, and incompetent to care for the ill. In addition to those factors, Nightingale also stressed the importance of keeping the client warm, maintaining a noise-free environment, and attending of the client’s diet in terms of assessing intake, timeliness of the food, and its effect on the person (Nightingale, 1999). Nightingale set the stage for further work in the development of nursing theories. Her general concepts about ventilation, cleanliness, quiet, warmth, and diet remain integral parts of nursing and health care today. b)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Roger’s Science of Unitary Human Beings Martha Rogers first presented her theory of unitary human beings in 1970. It contains complex conceptualizations related to multiple scientific disciplines (e.g., Einstein’s theory of relativity, Burr and Northrop’s electrodynamic theory of life; von Bertalanffy’s general systems theory; and many other disciplines, such as anthropology, psychology, sociology, astronomy, religion, philosophy, history, biology, and literature. Rogers views the person as an irreducible whole, the whole being greater than the sum of its parts. Whole is differentiated from holistic, the latter often being used to mean only the sum of all parts. She states that humans are dynamic energy fields in continuous exchange with environmental fields, both of which are infinite. The â€Å"human field image† perspective surpasses that of the physical body. Both human and environmental fields are characterized by pattern, a universe of open systems, and four dimensionalities (Rogers, 2000). Nurses applying Roger’s theory in practice (a) focus on the person’s wholeness, (b) seek to promote symphonic interaction between the two energy fields (human and environment) to strengthen the coherence and integrity of the person, (c) coordinate the human field with the rhythmicities of the environmental field, and (d) direct and redirect patterns of interaction between the two energy fields to promote maximum health potential. Nurses’ use of non-contact therapeutic touch is based on the concept of human energy fields. The qualities of the field vary from person to person and are affected by pain and illness. Although the field is infinite, realistically it is most clearly â€Å"felt† within several feet of the body. Nurses trained in non-contact therapeutic touch claim they can assess and feel the energy field and manipulate it to enhance the healing process of people who are ill or injured (Rogers, 2000). c)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Orem’s General Theory of Nursing Dorothea Orem’s theory, first published in 1971, includes the related concepts: self-care, self-care deficit, and nursing systems. Self-care theory is based in four concepts: self-care, self-care agency, self-care requisites, and therapeutic self-care demand. Self-care refers to those activities an individual performs independently throughout life to promote and maintain personal well-being. Self-care agency is the individual’s ability to perform self-care activities. It consists of two agents: A self-care agent (an individual who performs self-care independently) and a dependent care agent (a person other than the individual who provides the care) (Orem, 2001). Most adults care for themselves, whereas infants and people weakened by illness or disability require assistance with self-care activities. Self-care requisites, also called self-care needs, are measures or actions taken to provide self-care. Self-care deficit results when self-care agency is not adequate to meet the known self-care demand. Orem’s self-care deficit theory explains not only when nursing is needed but also how people can be assisted through five methods of helping; acting or doing for, guiding, teaching, supporting, and providing an environment that promotes the individual’s abilities to meet current and future demands. d)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   King’s Goal Attainment Theory Imogene King’s theory of goal attainment was derived from her conceptual framework. King’s framework shows the relationship of operational systems (individuals), interpersonal systems (groups such as nurse-patient), and social systems (such as educational system, health care system). She selected 15 concepts from the nursing literature (self, role, perception, communication, interaction, transaction, growth and development, stress, time, personal space, organization, status power, authority, and decision making) as essential knowledge for use by nurses. Ten of the concepts in the framework were selected (self, role, perception, communication, interaction, transaction, growth and development, stress, time, and personal space) as essential knowledge for use by nurses in concrete nursing situations. Within this theory, a transaction process model was designed (King, 2001). This process describes the nature of and standard for nurse—patient interactions that leads to goal attainment— that nurses purposefully interact and mutually set, explore, and agree to means to achieve goals. Goal attainment represents outcomes. When this information is recorded in the patient record, nurses have data that represent evidence-based nursing practice. King’s theory offers insight into nurses’ interactions with individuals and groups within the environment. It highlights the importance of a client’s participation in decisions that influence care and focuses on both the process of nurse-client interaction and the outcomes of care (King, 2001). IV. Conclusion In the natural sciences, the main function of theory is to guide research. In the practice disciples, the main function of theory (and research) is to provide new possibilities for understanding the discipline’s focus (music, art, management, and nursing). To Nightingale, the knowledge required to provide good nursing was neither unique nor specialized. Rather, Nightingale viewed nursing as central human activity grounded in observation, reason, and commonsense health practices. Theories articulate significant relationship between concepts in order to point something larger, such as gravity, the unconscious, or the experiences of pain. Reference: Benner, P. (2000). The roles of embodiment, emotion and lifeworld for rationality and agency in nursing practice. Nursing Philosophy, 1(1), 5-19. Nightingale, F. (1999). Notes on nursing: What it is, and what it is not. New York: Dover. (Original work published in 1860). Orem, D. (2001).   Nursing: Concepts of practice (8th Ed.). St. Louis, M.O. Mosby. Rogers, M.E. (2000).   An introduction to the theoretical basis if nursing. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis. Tomey, A.M. (2001). Nursing theorist and their work (7th Ed.). St. Louis MO: Mosby. King, I. M. (2001). A theory fir nursing: Systems, concepts, process. Albany, NY: Delmar.